What we feel toy breed says and relaxed job restoring philosophical differences ended the partnership. Operant conditioning is a form of learning which individual's behavior is modified by its consequences. Two complementary motivations drive instrumental learning: the maximization of positive outcomes and minimization of aversive ones. There are two ways which behavior is reinforced or strengthened: positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is strengthened by producing some desirable consequence; negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior is strengthened by avoiding some undesirable consequence. There are two ways which behavior is decreased or weakened: negative punishment occurs when a behavior is weakened by not producing a reinforcing consequence; and positive punishment occurs when a behavior is weakened by producing a consequence that is a disincentive. combination, these basic reinforcing and punishing contingencies provide four ways for modifying behavior. Reinforcement increases the relative probability or frequency of the behavior it follows, while punishment decreases the relative probability or frequency of the behaviour it follows. Typical positive reinforcement events satisfy some physiological or psychological need, it can be food, a game, or a demonstration of affection. Different dogs find different things reinforcing. Negative reinforcement occurs when a dog discovers that a particular response ends the presentation of aversive stimulus. aversive is anything that the dog does not like, such as verbal admonishment, or a tightened choke chain. Punishment is operationally defined as event that lowers the probability of the behavior that it follows. It is not punishment the common sense of the word, and does not mean physical or psychological harm and most certainly does not mean abuse. Punishment simply involves the presentation of undesired consequence when the wrong behavior is performed, such as a snap of the leash, or the removal of a desired consequence when the wrong behavior is performed, such as the trainer eating the cheese that would have been the reward. A behavior that has previously been developed cease if reinforcement stops; this is called extinction. A dog that paws its owner for attention eventually stop if it no longer receives attention. Classical conditioning is a form of learning which one stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus. Classical conditioning is when a dog learns to associate things its environment, or discovers some things just go together. A dog become afraid of rain through association with thunder and lightning, or it respond to the owner putting on a particular pair of shoes by fetching its leash. Classical conditioning is used dog training to help a dog make specific associations with a particular stimulus, particularly overcoming fear of people and situations. Non-associative learning is a change a response to a stimulus that does not involve associating the presented stimulus with another stimulus or event such as reward or punishment. Habituation is non-associative learning. example is where a dog that reacts excitedly to a door bell is subjected to repeated ringing without accompanying visitors, and stops reacting to the meaningless stimuli. It becomes habituated to the noise. On the other side of habituation is sensitization. Some dogs' reactions to the stimuli become stronger instead of them habituating to the repeated stimuli or event. Desensitization is the process of pairing positive experiences with object, person, or situation that causes fear or anxiety. Consistent exposure to the feared object conjunction with rewards allows the animal to become less stressed, thereby becoming desensitized the process. This type of training can be effective for dogs who are fearful of fireworks. Learned irrelevance is where dogs that are overexposed to a stimulus or cue learn the cue is irrelevant because the exposure has proven to be uneventful. a dog owner who continually says Sit, sit without response or consequence, inadvertently teaches the dog to ignore the cue. Learned helplessness occurs when a dog ceases to respond a situation where it has no option to avoid a negative event. For learned helplessness to occur, the event must be both traumatic and outside the dog's control. Family dogs that are exposed to unpredictable or uncontrolled punishment are at risk of developing disturbances associated with the learned helplessness disorder. Punishment which is poorly coordinated with identifiable avoidance cues or response options, such as when punishment takes place after the event, meet the criteria of inescapable trauma. Observational learning is the learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. This form of learning does not need reinforcement to occur; instead, a model animal is required. While the model not be intentionally trying to instill any particular behavior, behaviors that are observed are remembered and imitated. The domestic dog is a social species and its social dependency makes it aware of the behavior of others, which contributes to its own behavior and learning abilities. There is, however, ongoing discussion about how much, and how, dogs can learn by interacting with each other and with people. The term observational learning encompasses several closely related concepts: allelomimetic behavior or mimicking where, for example, puppies follow or copy others of their kind; social facilitation